Dierenopvattingen en -voorstellingen in de stand van de kennis in de 13de eeuw. (Caroline Everaert)

Adelinus of Aldhelmus van Malmesbury (ca 640-709) was een Engelse dichter en werd in 705 de eerste bisschop van Sherborne. In zijn werk Liber monstrorum bespreekt hij de wonderbaarlijke volkeren. Daarnaast schreef hij verschillende Latijnse raadsels in versvorm waarin dieren, planten en stenen werden vermeld.

De Engelse augustijn Alexander Neckham (1157-1217) was geleerde in de filosofie en theologie. Hij schreef bijbelcommentaren, becommentarieerde de werken van Aristoteles en schreef De naturis rerum.

Ambrosius (ca. 1200-1280) werd beschouwd als een van de kerkvaders. Van 374 tot 397 was hij bisschop van Milaan. Zijn werk, Hexaëmeron, was gebaseerd op het gelijknamige werk van Basilius. Hierin bespreekt hij de zes scheppingsdagen.

Aristoteles (384-322 voor Christus) was een Griekse filosoof en natuurwetenschapper. Zijn logische werken, verzameld in het Organon, vormden de basis van het middeleeuwse onderwijs. Zijn natuurfilosofische werken, Liber Naturalis, werden pas in de 13^de eeuw bekend in het Westen. Daaronder bevond zich het deel over de dieren, De animalibus.

De kerkvader Augustinus (354-430) was gedurende de hele Middeleeuwen een van de voornaamste autoriteiten. In 396 werd hij benoemd tot bisschop van Hippo, een ambt dat hij voor de rest van zijn leven bleef uitoefenen. Zijn voornaamste werk was De civitate dei (412-426).

Averroes of Ibn Roschd (1126-1198) was een Arabische filosoof. Hij was in de christelijke wereld vooral gekend voor zijn vertalingen en commentaren op de werken van Aristoteles.

De Arabische arts Avicenna of Ibn Sina (980-1037) raakte, net zoals Averroes, in het Westen bekend door zijn vertalingen van de werken van Aristoteles. Michaël Scotus vertaalde op zijn beurt Avicenna.

Basilius Magnus (ca. 330-379) was een Griekse kerkvader en bisschop van de provincie Caesarea. Hij schreef een werk over de zes scheppingsdagen, de Hexaëmeron.

Hieronymus (ca. 347- 419/420) was een kerkvader en filoloog. Hij maakte een vertaling van de Bijbel, de Vulgaat, die gedurende de Middeleeuwen als standaard werd beschouwd. Daarnaast schreef hij ondermeer bijbelcommentaren en heiligenlevens.

Isidorus van Sevilla (ca. 565-636) was aartsbisschop van Sevilla. Zijn encyclopedie, de Etymologiae, was een compilatie van de gehele kennis van zijn tijd. Alle gebieden van de wetenschap werden verkend. De etymologische verklaring van de woorden waren van groot belang in dit werk dat gedurende de Middeleeuwen een belangrijke bron van kennis bleef.

Jacobus van Vitry (ca. 1165-1240) was van 1216 tot 1228 bisschop van Akko (Palestina). In 1229 werd hij kardinaal van Tusculum en nog later werd hij legaat van Frankrijk en Duitsland. In zijn Historia Oriëntalis beschreef hij de geschiedenis, de geografie en de natuur van het Heilige Land.

Gaius Plinius Secundus Maior of Plinius de Oudere (23/24-79) was een Romeinse militair, magistraat en schrijver. Zijn werk Historia Naturalis met zijn talrijke natuurbeschrijvingen was een van de belangrijkste bronnen gedurende de Middeleeuwen.

Gaius Iulius Solinus (3^de eeuw) baseerde zich voor zijn werk Collectanae rerum memorabilium op het hierboven genoemde werk Historia Naturalis. Hierin werden beschrijvingen verzameld die de auteur zogezegd waargenomen heeft op zijn wereldreis.

De dominicaan Thomas van Cantimpré (ca. 1201-1270) was een leerling van Albertus Magnus. Hij schreef een aantal heiligenlevens, het Liber apum (ofwel Het biënboec) en een encyclopedie Liber de natura rerum (1233-1248) dat de inspiratiebron zou zijn voor Jacob van Maerlants Der naturen bloeme.

Jacob, blessing his son Judah, said, “Judah is a lion’s whelp” [Gen. 49:9]. Physiologus, who wrote about the nature of these words, said that the lion has three natures. His first nature is that when he walks following a scent in the mountains, and the odor of a hunter reaches him, he covers his tracks with his tail wherever he has walked so that the hunter may not follow them and find his den and capture him. Thus also, our Savior, the spiritual lion of the tribe of Judah, the root of David [cf. Rev. 5:5], having been sent down by his coeternal Father, his intelligible tracks (that is, his divine nature) from the unbelieving Jews: an angel with angels, an archangel with archangels, a throne with thrones, a power with powers, descending until he had descended into the womb of a virgin to save the human race which had perished. “And the word was made flesh and dwelt among us” [John 1:14]. And those who are on high not knowing him as he descended and ascended said this, “Who is this king of glory?” And the angels leading him down answered, “He is the lord of virtues, the king of glory” [cf. Ps. 24:10].

The second nature of the lion is that, although he has fallen asleep, his eyes keep watch for him, for they remain open. In the Song of Songs the betrothed bears witness, saying, “I sleep, but my heart is awake” [S. of S. 5:2]. And indeed, my Lord physically slept on the cross, but his divine nature always keeps watch in the right hand of the Father [cf. Matt. 26:64]. “He who guards Israel will neither slumber nor sleep” [Ps. 121:4].

The third nature of the lion is that, when the lioness has given birth to her whelp, she brings it forth dead. And she guards it for three days until its sire arrives on the third day and, breathing into its face on the third day, he awakens it. Thus did the almighty Father of all awaken from the dead on the third day the firstborn of every creature [cf. Col. 1:15]. Jacob, therefore, spoke well, “Judah is a lion’s whelp; who has awakened him?” [Gen. 49:9] [259].”

“De tribus principalibus naturis leonis.\ Phisici dicunt leonem\ tres principales naturas habere. Prima natura eius est, quod per\ cacumina montium amat ire. Et si contigerit ut queratur\ a venatoribus, venit ad eum odor venatorum, et cum cau\da sua tetigit posttergum vestigia sua. Tunc venato\res investigare eum nequeunt. Sic et salvator noster, scilicet\ spiritualis leo, de tribu Iuda, radix Iesse, filius David, cooperuit\ vestigia sue caritatis in celis, donec missus a patre descenderet\ in uterum virginis Marie, et salvaret genus humanum quod perierat.\

Et hoc ignorans diabolus scilicet humani generis inimicus, quasi pu\rum hominem ausus est temptare. Etiam hoc ignorantes qui sur\sum erant angeli, eo ascendente ad patrem, dicebant ad eos qui\ cum eo ascendebant: Quis est iste rex glorie?

Secunda natura eius est quod\ cum dormit, oculos apertos habere videtur. Sic et dominus noster cor\poraliter obdormiens in cruce, sepultus est, et deitas eius vigilibat, \ sic dicitur in canticis canticorum: Ego dormio, et cor meum vi\gilat. Et in psalmo: Ecce non dormitabit neque dormiet, qui\ custodit Israel.

Tertia natura eius est, cum leena parit catulos\ suos generat, eos mortuos, et custodit eos tribus diebus donec\ veniens pater eorum tertia die insufflat in faciem eorum et\ vivificat eos. Sic omnipotens pater dominum nostrum Iesum Christum, tertia die\ suscitavit a mortuis, dicente Iacob: Dormitabit tanquam\ leo, et sicut catulus leonis suscitabitur.

…

Adversi coheunt. Nec hii tan\tum, sed et linces, et cameli, et elephanti, et rinocerontes,\ et tygrides, et leene. Fetu primo catulos quinque educant. De\ inde per singulos numerum decoquunt annis in sequentibus.\ Et postremo cum ad unum pervenerint, materna fecunditas\ reciditur, sterilescunt in eternum.

…

Leontophones vocari accipimus modicas bestias.\ Que capte exuruntur ut earum cineres [A: cineris] aspergine carnes pol\lute iacteque carnes pita [A:per compita] concurrentium semitarum leones ne\cent, si quantulumcumque ex illis sumpserint. Propterea leones\ naturali eas primunt odio atque ubi facultas data est morsu\ quidem abstinent, sed dilaniatas exanimant pedum nisibus.\

Of the three main characteristics of the lion.
Those who study nature say that the lion has three main characteristics. The first is that it loves to roam amid mountain peaks. If it happens that the lion is pursued by hunters, it picks up their scent and obliterates the traces behind it with its tail. As a result, they cannot track it. Thus our Saviour, a spiritual lion, of the tribe of Judah, the root of Jesse, the son of David, concealed the traces of his love in heaven until, sent by his father, he descended into the womb of the Virgin Mary and redeemed mankind, which was lost.

Not knowing of his divine nature, the Devil, the enemy of mankind, dared to tempt him like an ordinary man. Even the angels on high did not know of his divinity and said to those who were with him when he ascended to his father: 'Who is this king of glory?'

The second characteristic of the lion is that when it sleeps, it seems to have its eyes open. Thus our Lord, falling asleep in death, physically, on the cross, was buried, yet his divine nature remained awake; as it says in the Song of Songs: 'I sleep but my heart waketh' (5:2); and in the psalm: 'Behold, he that keepeth Israel shall neither slumber nor sleep' (121: 4).

The third characteristic of the lion is that when a lioness gives birth to her cubs, she produces them dead and watches over them for three days, until their father comes on the third day and breathes into their faces and restores them to life. Thus the Almighty Father awakened our Lord Jesus Christ from the dead on the third day; as Jacob says: 'He will fall asleep as a lion, and as a lion's whelp he will be revived' (see Genesis, 49:9).

...

Lions mate face to face; and not only lions, but lynxes, and camels, and elephants, and rhinoceroses, and tigers. [Lionesses, when] they first give birth, bear five cubs. In the years which follow, they reduce the number by one at a time. Afterwards, when they are down to one cub, the fertility of the mother is diminished; they become sterile for ever.

...

We learn of small beasts called leontophones, lion-killers. When captured, they are burnt; meat contaminated by a sprinkling of their ashes and thrown down at crossroads kills lions, even if they eat only a small an amount. For this reason, lions pursue leontophones with an instinctive hatred and, when they have the opportunity, they refrain from biting them but kill them by rending them to pieces under their paws.[260]”

trecken ende si en eten gheen menschen ten waer dat si alte groten honger hadden

“58. LEO (Lion) is represented by three species; one is short, with much hair on its neck and is relatively weak; another is slender, as if spawned by a leopard, and is timid in character; the third is long and displays enormous strength. |107| The lion is a lordly animal which delights in mighty and generous deeds, whence it is called “king of the beasts.” because it is disposed to share its prey with other animals, it disdains to provide for the morrow; after eating its fill, it is reluctant to return to leftovers of its feast but allows them to be taken by any animal, especially by man whom it seldom attacks and kills unless prompted by great hunger when no other food is available. With its formidable strength the lion claws and dismembers those that oppose and challenge its superiority; and beg for mercy. While a lion rarely shows fear, it has a unique hatred for the scorpion and invariably takes flight when it encounters one. According to some reports it is also afraid of a white rooster.

When a lion is tamed, the training is enforced at the crack of a whip. If a lion is satiated by overeating, it sticks a paw down its throat to induce vomiting, especially when it anticipates running at full tilt in flight; scarcely ever will it eat a second meal before the first one is digested. (...)

Some contend the lion suffers continually from quartan fever, but this is patently absurd since nature produces no animal which lacks a balanced humoral constitution suited to its specific needs and designed to preserve its health under ordinary conditions. Sometimes when a lion takes sick, it preys on an ape and, after eating the ape’s flesh, is cured of its ailment. Occasionally it drinks a dog’s blood for the same purpose. The greasy fat of the lion has hotter quality than the fats of all other animals; for this reason every animal, even snakes, shies away from anyone who is smeared with lion grease. The vertebrae in a lion’s neck are intimately connected and the adjacent flesh is tough and rigid, giving the entire neck a tendinous character which prevents the lion from turning its head and looking backward. Its interior parts are like those of a dog, not expecting the fanglike teeth, though the lion’s are larger; however its external appearance more resembles a cat. When a lion traverses stony ground, it retracts its claws to protect them from damage, treating them as weapons to be spared for conflict.[263]”

LION est apelés selonc la langue as grizois, ki tant vaut dire comme rois en nostre parleure. Car lion est apelés rois des bestes, pour ce que la ou il crie toutes bestes s’enfuient comme se la mors les cachast; et la u il fait cercle de sa coue, nule beste n’ose passer par enki. 2. Et nanporquant lyon sont de. iii.manieres; car li .i. sont brief et ont les crins crespes et sont sans bataille, li autre sont lons et grans et ont crins simples et sont mervilleuse fierté. Et lor corage sont demoustré par le front et par sa coue, et sa force est en son pis, et sa fermeté est en son chief. 3. Et ja soit ce k’il est redoutés de tous animaus, neporquant il crient le blanc cok et la tumulte de roës, et feus li fet grant paour. Et d’autra part li escorpions li fet mal trop grant se il le fiert, nés le venin dou serpent l’ocist. 4. Car cil ki ne soufri pas que nule chose fust sans contraira volt bien ke li lions ki est orgilleus et fors sor toutes choses, et ke par sa grant fierté ensit proie tozjours, eust des choses ki l’enpechent contre sa cruauté, dont il n’a pooir k’il s’en deffende; et entre * ce est il si malades autresi con de fievre les .iii. jours de la sesmaine, ki mout amenuise son orguel. Et nanporquant nature li ensenge a mangier le siguë, ki le garist de sa maladie. (…)

7. Et sachiés ke lyon gisent envers, li malle avec femele, autresi come les cers et comme cameus et olifans et unicorn et tygres, et si engendrent .v. fiz a la premiere porture; mais la force k’il ont es ongles et es dens et en tout le cors empire molt la matrice sa mere, tant come il sont dedens. Et a lor naistre issent en tel maniere que la seconde fois li leus ou la mere reçoit la semence son malle n’a pooir que il engendrent que .iiii., et a la tierce fois trois, et a la quatre fois .ii., et a la quinte .i. De lors en avant est cil leus si gastes k’il ne conçoit jamés tote en lor naissance, li lionceaus sont si esbahi k’il en gisent en pasmison .iii. jors, autresi come s’il fussent sans vie; tant que lor peres vient au chief de .iii. jors, ki les escrie si fort de sa vois que li fiz s’esdrecent et ensivent lor nature. 9. L’autre maniere de lyon sont engendré d’une beste ki a non parde, et teus lyons sont sans crins et sans noblece et sont conté entre les autres vils bestes. (…)[264]”

In Deuteronomy Moses said while blessing Joseph, “His beauty is that of the firstling bull, and his horns are the horns of the unicorn” [Deut. 33:17]. The monoceras, that is, the unicorn, has this nature: he is a small animal like the kid, is exceedingly shrewd, and has one horn in the middle of his head. The hunter cannot approach him because he is extremely strong. How then do they hunt the beast? Hunters place a chaste virgin before him. He bounds forth into her lap and she warms and nourishes the animal and takes him into the palace of kings.

The unicorn has one horn because the Savior said, “I and the Father are one” [John 10:30]. “For he has raised up a horn of salvation for us in the house of his servant David” [Lk. 1:69]. Coming down from heaven, he came into the womb of the Virgin Mary. “He was loved like the son of the unicorns” [cf. Ps. 22:21] as David said in the psalm.

[He is said to be shrewd since neither principalities, powers, thrones, nor dominations can comprehend him, nor can hell hold him. He is small because of the humility of his incarnation. He said, “Learn from me; for I am gentle and lowly in heart” [Matt. 11:29]. He is so shrewd that that most clever devil cannot comprehend him or find him out, but through the will of the Father alone he came down into the womb of the Virgin Mary for our salvation. “And the Word became flesh and dwelt among us” [Jon 1:14]. The unicorn is like the kid, as is our Savior according to the Apostle: “He was made in the likeness of sinful flesh and for sin he condemned sin in the flesh” [cf. Rom. 8:3]. This was spoken well of the unicorn.][266]”